In many industrial processes a large amount of hydroxide ions in a base solution is utilized to achieve a desired reaction, e.g., to neutralize an acid, or buffer the pH of a solution, or precipitate an insoluble hydroxide and/or carbonate and/or bicarbonate from a solution. One method by which the hydroxide ions are produced is by an electrochemical system as disclosed in the above-referenced patent applications, herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. In producing the hydroxide ions electrochemically, a large amount of electrical energy is used; consequently, minimizing the electrical energy used is highly desired.